The Bible and Beyond

Source—Hebrew Bible

Torah (Law)

Pre-modern Jews and Christians, without question, accepted Moses as author of the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The Greek name for Torah is Pentateuch, generally found in academic accounts whereas Torah (The Law or Teachings of Moses) designates a more religious nature. Into the twentieth century CE, there is disagreement over the authorship of the Torah. Some feel God gave all the words to Moses who then recorded them; others look at the final form of the Torah taking place later than the time of Moses.

The Renaissance (fourteenth into the seventeenth century CE), brought an interest in ancient texts resulting in a renewed study of the Hebrew Bible. Scholars, through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, identified distinct writing patterns in the Torah. Following is a brief description of the findings.

Yahwist Source 900s BCE (J) from the name YHWH for God

German scholars were the first to write of the various sources of the Hebrew Bible; in the German language YHWH begins with J. The writings attributed to this author, from the Southern Kingdom of Judah, tell of the development of humankind and of people with the belief of one personal God. It is thought that the Yahwist wrote during the time of King Solomon (968-928 BCE), though it could have been more than a century later.

Elohist Source 800s-700s BCE (E) from the Hebrew word Elohim

Elohim is a general term for God, sometimes shown as El. The Elohist author, a priest, was from the Northern Kingdom of Israel. The Elohist writings are only found within the Yahwist writings. The priest left the north after that kingdom fell to Assyria (721 BCE) and settled in the Southern Kingdom. He took his writings with him and they were then incorporated into the Yahwist narratives noted as JE.

Deuteronomic Source 600s BCE (D) from the final book of the Torah

The source of the book of Deuteronomy is not combined with other writings, though there are repetitions of earlier narratives. Deuteronomy is different from the first four books of the Torah in that no other source is identified within the writing. Deuteronomy includes Moses’ last days and his advice to the Hebrews for entering the Promised Land. Apparently, Levites who left the Northern Kingdom for the Southern Kingdom preserved the material and compiled it into a book. Scholars generally agree that the book found in the Temple in 622 BCE (2 Kings 22) is the central part of Deuteronomy.

Priestly Source 500-400s BCE (P) from the writings of priests

During the Babylonian exile (587-539 BCE) and extending through the return of the Israelites to Judah, priests recorded religious traditions and practices so they would not be lost. In the absence of a Temple, the efforts of the priests maintained and reinforced the Israelites faith during their bondage in Babylonia.

Redactor R

Some scholars assume an editor or a group of editors, called redactors, combined the various sources mentioned into the Torah. The lengthy process was completed in stages, most likely during the Babylonia exile (586-538 BCE). Other scholars feel there was little editing to the final Torah and use the word compiler for the process instead of redactor.

Marc ZVI Brettler, in his introduction to The Jewish Study Bible, presents the view that reading the Bible as it was written before concern regarding authorship, brings a clarity to the meaning of the messages that prevailed for thousands of years. Brettler also suggested that, perhaps, concentrating on individual sources leads to a lack of appreciation for the very reason the Bible came to be. As with all things, thoughts differ.

Canonization, the designation of biblical material as Inspired (Scripture), covered many years. At the time Hebrew writings were noted as central to the Jewish faith, the term canon had not come into use regarding the Bible. Many scholars feel it was after the Israelites return from Babylonia and Ezra’s help in restoring the faith (458 BCE), when the Torah (Law) was looked on as Scripture.

The section of the Hebrew Bible, Nevi’im (Prophets), deals with the final days of Moses then moves on through reclaiming the Promised Land of Canaan. That was a time when prophets and kings were influential. Prophets extended into the Babylonia exile and beyond; their spoken proclamations eventually became written words. The long-complicated history was recorded by more than one author and reflected various stages and interests. Once written, the complex compositions were edited and expanded. The Nevi’im was considered Scripture before 300 BCE.

A variety of material from diverse time periods is found in the Kethuvim (Writings), the last section of the Hebrew Bible. There is no central theme or idea portrayed in these writings covering Israel’s past, prayers, wisdom literature, and apocalyptic prophecy. The Kethuvim is significant for understanding the Hebrew Bible as a whole while providing insight into the development of Jewish thought after the rebuilding of Jerusalem and into the beginning of Roman persecution (515-63 BCE). These writings came together and were considered Scripture by 70 CE.